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This article is a critique of major sections of the UN Convention on the Rights of the Child (CRC), arguing that its implementation is disablist and discriminatory for disabled children. On the one hand the spirit of the CRC is for States to value children for whoever they are and wherever they come from, whilst on the other hand the CRC advocates different rights and interventions for different groups of children.
"The most beautiful and enriching trait of human life
is diversity - a diversity that can never be used to justify inequality.
Repressing diversity will impoverish the human race. We must facilitate and
strengthen diversity in order to reach a more equitable world for us all. For
equality to exist, we must avoid standards that define what a normal human life
should be or the normal way of achieving success …and happiness. The only
normal quality that can exist amongst human beings is life itself."
(Dr
Oscar Arias, President of Costa Rica)
At what point does life begin? At conception, embryo or foetus stage, or when a child is born? The Convention deliberately avoids the controversies of pre-birth issues:
'By avoiding a clear reference to either birth or the moment of
conception, the convention endorses a flexible and open solution, leaving to
national legislation of the moment when childhood or life begins.'
(Hodgkin
& Newell, 1998, p.3)
States Parties vary in their definition of when life begins. The
Argentinean Civil Code states "Human existence begins from conception in the
womb; and a person may acquire certain ante-natal rights, as if he had already
been born."
(Hodgkin & Newell, p.3)
In the UK, on the other hand, the Convention is interpreted as applicable only following a live birth.
Under Article 24, pre-natal tests are not forbidden. It can therefore be assumed that if a State Party thinks that having the tests and thereafter an abortion is acceptable, then the Convention would not condemn the practice.
In the UK, for example, under the 1967 Abortion Act, Section (1)(d) allows abortion up to full term, if it is considered that there is 'a substantial risk that, if the child were born, it would suffer from such physical or mental abnormalities as to be severely handicapped.' Pre-natal testing is used for conditions such as Down's syndrome and cystic fibrosis, and the option of termination up to birth is given to the parents.
Thus the CRC leaves it open to States Parties to identify and abort foetuses with impairments before they are born, which thereafter legitimises the continued practice of selecting who shall have the right to life. This is a direct violation of Article 2 (non-discrimination), and Article 6 (right to life and survival).
By avoiding the issue of when life begins, the CRC legitimises States which may wish to eliminate disabled people by bio-ethical methods. Children's right to life will become increasingly threatened before birth, especially with the modern genetic research and the completion of the human genome project. Geneticists will be able to manipulate the genes of a would-be baby. Medical conditions will in the future be replaced by genetic codes.
In the UK, the Human Fertilisation and Embryology Project has recently produced a consultation document on Pre-implantation Genetic Diagnosis (Corker, 2000). This technique involves the testing and removal of genetic disorders in embryos outside the body. The Advisory Committee has advised that this would be a viable option, which may be less emotive than aborting a foetus.
In fact, this would be even worse because it degrades children with impairments and their parents. The emotional relationship between baby and mother starts from in the womb, rather than after birth, regardless of impairment.
The focus at the moment is on eliminating disabled children with impairments, but will it stop there? What will be the next aspect of human difference to be the target of the geneticists? Who decides who should live and who should not live?
Article 12 (1) states that "States Parties shall assure to the child who is capable of forming his or her own views the right to express those views freely in all matters affecting the child, the views of the child being given due weight in accordance with the age and maturity of the child." (CRC)
This Article assumes that not all children's views should be given equal consideration. Under this interpretation, a child who is able to use the appropriate vocabulary and social-interaction skills is likely to have his or her views taken more seriously than someone who 'acts out', i.e. expresses views and feelings through non-verbal behaviour. For example, two 14-year-old children are unhappy with having to take pills for weight control. The first, who is able to use culturally appropriate language and social interaction skills, is more likely to have her views respected than the second, who has no spoken language and whose only way of communicating is to spit out the pills. The second child might legitimately be forced to have the medical treatment, as this form of expression - spitting out the pills - would be considered immature.
There are several examples of disabled children expressing distress through non-verbal behaviour.
14 year-old Tanya did not like living with her foster carers. She made
this very clear through her behaviour: "Tanya became aggressive, was very
distressed when it was time to return to the foster carers, and indicated
strongly that she did not want to go back to them. She then began running away
from the foster carers, soiling herself and stealing."
(Bernard 1999)
Niki's feelings about attending a special school are clearly expressed:
'Niki started to talk less and less, he didn't smile so much and when he
laughed it was a nervous shrill sound that seemed to come from somewhere
else…One day I picked him up and he was very subdued, frightened really.
Which is not like our Niki at all, well not like he used to be. He was still,
rigid, he couldn't talk, couldn't make a sound…. I took off his school
uniform and he was covered in bruises, scratches up and down his thighs, they
looked like fingernail marks, purple and black. He must have been in a lot of
pain.'
(Brandon, 1996)
At the age of five, Anya Souza, was able to tell her mother why she did not want to attend her special school.
"…the teachers seemed to do everything for me. I remember 'making'
paper toys, a stuffed fish and two stuffed rabbits. What I mean is that it was
the nursery nurse who really made them, and not me. … Anyway I took the
rabbits and the fish home and I ripped them up because they were not part of
me. I hadn't made them. I think my mother realised that I was not happy. …
After a term she took me out…"
(Anya Souza, 1997)
According to Article 12, these children may not be considered 'mature' enough to earn the right to be listened to, yet the views they express are important and unmistakable. Rom Harre (1970), points out that in everyday life, social experiences take the form of whole, meaningful episodes, not isolated acts or actions. We need to look at the whole context, including the people concerned, the ways in which they express themselves, the background to what is going on, the setting in which events are taking place, and so on. Tanya's mother, for example, understood her daughter's action of only soiling herself when she returns to her foster carers where she was abused.
It has been established that it is easier to tell lies using words than through body language.
In experiments examining the impact of verbal and non-verbal
communication: 'the non-verbal style had more effect than the verbal contents,
in fact about 5 times as much; when the verbal and non-verbal messages were in
conflict, the verbal contents were virtually disregarded.'
(Argyle,
1972)
Not all disabled young people are non-verbal, but some young people are assumed to be so because of the nature and degree of physical or cognitive impairment. Some disabled young people need communication aids or sign language interpreters to assist them to communicate with words.
11 year old Zarah Manuell was heard saying YES on her communication aid
when a radio journalist asked if she liked attending a mainstream school with
her friends.
('File on Four', BBC Radio 4)
'One young woman who uses facilitated communication… was asked if
there was anything she didn't like about Learning Support Assistants she
commented: "They don't listen" …
Do you think they don't listen to you
because you don't speak?
"Yes"
"What do you think might help them to
listen to you? any ideas?"
"To not think I'm a baby." Girl Year
7'
(Wilson & Jade, 1999)
'What children will be capable of doesn't just depend on their age and
abilities. It also depends on their experience - what they know and can do
already and on how confident they are and how much encouragement and support
they receive.'
(Miller, 1999)
To be able to learn responsibility, children need to be helped and encouraged to participate in decision-making from the earliest appropriate age. This goes hand in hand with Article 5, which refers to parents' respect for the child's evolving capacities.
A young participant at an 'Early Years' Conference in 1994 challenges the implicit view of Article 12 that not all children's views are of equal value:
'Children's Rights are for all children and we have to keep reminding
ourselves that childhood starts at birth, not when babies become old enough to
say things for themselves. Babies and young children speak to us in all sorts
of ways and it's up to us to give them time to express themselves.'
(Cousins
1996, p.194)
She is clear that there is no single way that children tell others how they feel. The young participant would recognise that these young people are telling other people something that is important.
UNICEF's Implementation Handbook for the CRC stresses the need to have access to appropriate aids and support.
"The provision of special technology, interpreters (for example signing
for the deaf and partially hearing children) and special training, including of
other children, parents and other family members" is acknowledged in the
commentary on Article 12.
(Hodgkin & Newell, p.152)
Article 12 should be rewritten to undertake appropriate remedies to being receptive to children's feelings, which may or may not be expressed in words.
Article 12 also highlights the importance for disabled young people to have their voice heard during any legal proceedings, on issues which affect their day-to-day lives.
The following examples are taken from the work of the Independent Panel
for Special Educational Advice (IPSEA) which supports families with children
with special educational needs who need independent legal advice about
education for their children
(Aspis, 2000).
Lorraine Downer appealed to the Special Educational Needs Tribunal (SENT) on behalf of her son Andrew. "I think it would be unfair if he did not know what was going on. There are probably lots of parents who would have kept their children out of it. It was all about Andrew so he needed to be involved."
Andrew said "We go to court to fight for Castle High. I showed the court what I could do and let the court check who will win and see what is best. I gave all my work I do at Woodsetton (Primary) School. They (Dudley Council) say I can only count up to 10. This is not true. I can count very well, take away, times and do some algebra. I can measure and do mental arithmetic, I cannot see why they say I cannot do this. I am a quiet boy but I listen to the teachers and adults in what they say. I work on my own and I ask for help from a teacher when I do not know. I cannot help being quiet, that is how I am. I want to go to Castle High because I will learn better with my English, Maths and Technology. My cousins and friends are there so I will be able to mix with them."
Andrew not only wanted to contest what Dudley Council said was wrong about him. He also wanted to tell the SENT Panel which school he wanted to attend and why.
"At Sutton School there were kids that played up, being rude. There were children who talked where the teachers talked. I saw all the pictures of colouring and painting. I saw them doing a work sheet, It was a bit babyish, doing baby work. At Pensnett, the school was too small and too far away. It did not look like a school. There were big corridors and few classrooms. There were not many kids there. At Castle High it was a big school and it was grown up. All the kids were working in Art Class. There was children writing in English class and making up poems and doing work sheets."
Young people with no verbal communication skills have also been involved during the legal proceedings. Pete and Wendy Crane decided to use video to record how their son Niki felt at both Ashurst Special and Tarleton Primary Schools. During the Ashurst school scene Niki was seen in the cooking class either yawning or putting his head between his arms on the table whilst waiting for his biscuit from the teacher. In the PE lesson Niki was seen aimlessly wandering around… During a music class Niki could also be seen not participating. In Tarleton School however Niki is seen very happily interacting with other pupils. During the lesson Niki with an air of self-confidence walked up to the front of the class whilst singing a nursery rhyme.
Both children had clear views about where they wanted to go to school, which they were supported to express to the SENT, which took them into consideration. The Panel found in Andrew's favour, and he is currently enjoying going to Castle High, the school of his choice. Niki on the other hand lost his case.
The emphasis of Article 12 is on participation rather than self-determination in decision-making. For example, Andrew Downer was able to express his views during the SENT hearing. However, under UK education law, Andrew would not be able to appeal to the SENT on his own behalf.
All Children Together (ACT) is a parents' group that carried out
research to find out what disabled children with learning difficulties think
about their schools. ACT's researchers found that 17 out of 21 children
interviewed said they felt they should make the decision between special and
mainstream schooling for themselves
(All Children Together, 2000).
'Young and Powerful', a group of disabled and non-disabled young people
campaigning for inclusive education, also states that "Children should have
rights that are separate to their parents."
(Young And Powerful, 1998)
In the UK, a young person under the age of 18 needs an adult to appeal on their behalf (in education this is the parent or guardian) if wanting to take any legal action. Clearly a conflict of interest arises when the child's view is different from the parents' view.
'I would have welcomed the opportunity to represent myself at the
Special Educational Needs Tribunal. My parents forced me to attend a special
school against my wishes. I would have liked the opportunity to make my views
known and to put pressure on the Local Education Authority to send me to a
mainstream school.'
(Aspis, quoted in Hansard 11.12.96)
It is even more difficult for a disabled child in the care of the local authority, if their opinion is different from that of their guardian, i.e. the local authority, who also is the service-provider. Neither Article 12 nor current UK law support a child's self-determination.
Article 12 treats children as individuals, with individual concerns, for which individual solutions are required. However, young disabled people must have the right not only to be involved in decisions that affect them as individuals, but also to act with others who have experienced the same discrimination and oppression.
History - through the experience of women, Black people and, now,
disabled people - tells us that it is when groups of people identify with each
other and collectively define their oppression that they become successful in
claiming their rights.
(Aspis, 1999)
This where Article 15: Freedom of Association comes in.
The guidance provided by UNICEF's Implementation Handbook links Article 15 in relation to disabled children with UN Standard Rule* #5. This Rule relates to accessibility - to the physical environment, to information and communication, i.e. what non-disabled children take for granted. This shows a lower level of expectations in relation to disabled children and their potential for self-determination and political involvement.
In fact, Article 15 logically ties in with UN Standard Rule #18: Organizations of persons with disabilities, and SR #15: Legislation, which reads:
'States are under an obligation to enable persons with disabilities to exercise their rights, including their human, civil and political rights, on an equal basis with other citizens.'
Young disabled people challenging injustice on an individual basis is not enough. They need the space and right to freedom of association so that they can organise themselves to challenge both the legal and political system.
'Young and Powerful' highlighted this during their first Inclusive Education Demonstration in 1998, when they delivered a letter to the British Prime Minister:
"We are a group of disabled and non disabled people and supporters who
believe we should all have the right to go to our local mainstream school. We
feel that children in special schools miss out on a decent academic and social
education and those in mainstream schools, who hardly ever get see disabled
people miss out on the opportunity to learn about and appreciate differences,
rather than only seeing disabled people through the patronising view of the
media. We feel we deserve each other's friendship and that the segregated
education system denies us the chance to be together and see each other for
what we really are. We ask YOU to put an end to compulsory segregation by
changing the law."
(Quoted in Aspis)
After delivering the letter, the Young and Powerful marched to the Department for Education and Employment (DfEE) to demand a meeting with the Secretary of State for Education, David Blunkett, to talk about amending the Education law so that all disabled children have the right to attend a mainstream school. After the meeting, Young and Powerful prepared and presented an Action Plan for Inclusive Education to the DfEE. This was one of a number of initiatives which persuaded the government to re-examine SENT regulations to give children greater right to attend and to speak up at the proceedings. The SEN and Disability in Education Act should give parents of disabled children more rights to secure mainstream education for their disabled children.
Many disabled children's experiences of injustice have come about through discriminatory legislation. These young people therefore need their right to participate in the political process enshrined in the Convention.
Information about civil rights needs to be made available for disabled children so that they know what rights they should and do have. The Special Educational Needs part of the 1996 Education Act has been produced in an accessible format for disabled children to use when assisting the family during the SENT proceedings. The Government has made the Disability Discrimination Act accessible for disabled people with learning difficulties. Information to help disabled children to become involved with disability rights advocacy must also include an interpretation of disability. Simone Aspis has written one page explaining why disabled children become labelled as having learning difficulties for an inclusive education campaign.
Articles 7 and 8 discuss the right of the child to an identity, but this is limited to his or her right to a name, nationality and family history. It assumes that a child has the right to construct a positive image of him or herself based only on nationality and family relationships. Tom Shakespeare describes the potential identity crisis for people with impairments:
'A basic dilemma of the handicapped person is that of which group he belongs to, whether he should identify himself with "the handicapped" or to what extent he should consider himself part of normal society. He finds he is a member of society but different from most other members. Hence he is often unsure where he belongs.' Western thinking does not consider the importance of how children are influenced by social groups. According to Tajfel and Turner (1979) social groupings are the basic units of how people make sense of their social worlds, meaning the relationships between individuals who are part of a social group, and other individuals who are part of other social groups.
A positive self-image of belonging to the social group of 'being disabled' will depend on how positively disabled people - both adults and children - are portrayed in the child's life. 14 year-old David Alty goes to REACT, an organisation of people with learning difficulties:
"I learn a lot from being with adults like me who have a learning
disability. When you have friends and get to know one another you find out
about all the things you have in common. I think it's good that I have had the
opportunity to get to know adults that have the same learning disabilities as I
have. When I have (a problem) I will have the experts to help me solve it. I
like going to REACT during the school holidays as they are my friends and I
like being with them."
(Aspis, 2000)
There is an implicit assumption that cultural values and beliefs are all passed down through the family, and that those family values will foster a positive identity in the child. For a disabled child, however, this cannot be automatically assumed to be sufficient. The CRC needs to recognise the importance of providing opportunities for children and young people with impairments to identify with others with similar impairments, by forming or joining organisations and groups.
How disability is interpreted will influence what solutions are found to support disabled children's participation in the community. Disability is not defined in Article 23. In the CRC Implementation Handbook, reference is made to the definitions in the UN Standard Rules, where disability is defined as an individual condition:
'The term 'disability' summarizes a great number of different functional
limitations occurring in any population in any country of the world. People may
be disabled by physical, intellectual or sensory impairment, medical conditions
or mental illness. Such impairments, conditions or illnesses may be permanent
or transitory in nature.'
(Hodgkin & Newell, p.297)
Article 23 states that:
'States Parties recognize that a mentally or physically disabled child
should enjoy a full and decent life, in conditions which ensure dignity,
promote self-reliance and facilitate the child's active participation in the
community …
… in a manner conducive to the child's achieving the
fullest possible social integration and individual development.'
Nowhere in Article 23 does it mention the right of disabled children to depend on others. It assumes the western approach emphasising individual development and self-reliance. This is summed up neatly by Alan Sutton, who pioneered conductive education** in the UK:
"The ability to function rather more independently in the world than
they were previously able to do without special help given them in terms of
adaptations to buildings; the need for a carer or an assistant in school and
the need for certain disability aids. The initial goal, one sets out to achieve
a degree of independence, which does not require such major aids. I would want
a disabled person to use the self same equipment as I do without the need to
have the phone or car adapted in particular ways. "
(Rieser & Mason,
1993)
Sutton emphasises the need to for the disabled child to become as 'independent' as possible, in order to reduce his or her need for different equipment. He then acknowledges his own dependence on equipment - his car and phone, but sees the aim for the 'independent' disabled person as being dependence on the same equipment as everyone else.
Sometimes treatment and rehabilitation can be taken too far. Sipho, a young man with CP from Swaziland, tells about a home-made attempt to straighten his wrist:
'while I used to look after cattle, a neighbour offered to straighten my
wrist. My father agreed and the neighbour took two wooden 'splints' and put one
on the back of the hand and the other on the palm side. She used elastic bands
cut from the tyre tube to secure them in place. Later in the day my hand
started to swelling and became very painful. I decided to remove them and got
relief from pain and swelling. I told my family why I had removed the "splints"
and no one tried to help me afterwards."
(International SC Alliance, 2001,
Example #233)
Elit, a young disabled man with cerebral palsy has had 14 major surgery
procedures to break his legs and thighs in four different places. He will have
three muscles moved whilst having 7 other muscles lengthened in order to make
his legs as normal as possible so that he would not need to use a wheelchair.
During the film 'Altogether Better', Elit is shown using crutches.
(Rieser
& Mason, 1993)
The other rights of the child can be forgotten:
'There was George who was made to struggle for 15 minutes every evening
to get his socks off.. There was Peter who took 20 minutes every morning to get
one arm into his shirt sleeve, and Simon who took even longer to get his arm
out. … to insist on independence is a form of oppression.'
(French,
1993)
A balance needs to be found between 'rehabilitation', and other rights - to education (Article 28), to leisure and play with friends (Article 31), to make choices (Article 12), to be valued as an individual, which should not be conditional on 'becoming independent' (Article 2: Non-discrimination). It should be recognised that an excessive focus on treatment and rehabilitation of the disabled child violates one of the basic principles of the CRC - 'the best interests of the child shall be a primary consideration' (Article 3).
Disabled people reject the individual medical model of disability
described above, in favour of the social model of disability. The social model
defines 'impairment' as the loss of physical, sensory or intellectual
functioning and 'disability' as 'a human rights issue. ..a complex system of
social restrictions imposed on people with impairments by a highly
discriminatory society.'
(BOND Disability and Development Working Group,
1999)
However, there are three major problems with the social model definition of impairment. The first is that not all people with impairments experience a loss of functioning, secondly, the definition does not challenge the traditional, dominant concept of normality, and thirdly, with the increase in genetic research, children who are labelled with genetic defects will also face discrimination in the same way as disabled people with other impairments.
A more accurate reflection of the current membership of the disabled people's movement requires a definition of impairment not of loss or lack, but as body difference. The body function or biological structure must be different from some kind of preconceived sensory, physical, intellectual or psychological norms which usually derive from some kind of standardised test. These standardised tests are usually derived from intellectual, psychological, sensory and physical developments and experiences of western society populations. Consequently disability is culturally defined, as Mohammed's example illustrates.
15 year old Mohammed Abdi who has a physical impairment, arrived in England from Somalia with no previous formal schooling, but able to speak fluent Somali. The educational psychologist was unable to assess Mohammed's intellectual ability
'given his particular cultural, language and experiential circumstances. The British Ability Scales II … were not appropriate. Mohammed experienced difficulty understanding the language associated with the scales and I felt was additionally disadvantaged by his not having the same educational experiences that the population of children this instrument is standardised on would have had. I therefore abandoned this form of assessment as it was unlikely to yield any accurate or useful information."
The emphasis of society needs to change to become more inclusive and accepting of difference. Article 23 makes no reference to the need for society to change.
Young disabled people are very clear about the need for support and changes in the way society organises itself. In their Inclusive Education Action Plan, 'Young And Powerful' state:
"Non-disabled children and adults benefit from the presence of disabled
children. It broadens their experience and gets them used to disabled people
being around and so cuts down on prejudice and discrimination both in school
and in later adult life. This applies to physically disabled children, deaf
children or blind children, children with learning difficulties and children
with behaviour problems. The difference is we need different sorts of support.
Physically disabled children need to have access to the building, toilets and
classrooms including different activities in the curriculum and personal
assistance with certain tasks. The young person needs to be in control of this
personal assistance. Blind and deaf children need access to different forms of
communication - Braille or BSL. Children who can not talk should be taught to
use talkers, symbols or computers to communicate. Children with learning
difficulties should be given appropriate work at the right speed for them.
Everyone learns at different speeds. Children with behaviour problems need
extra support staff and a place to go where people will listen to them when
they cannot cope in the class."
(Young and Powerful, 1998)
Article 23 needs to place less emphasis on individual rehabilitation, and more on the social model of disability which would then lead to a different range of solutions: increased accessibility of services and activities, an increase in support for participation, and more flexible approaches to meeting disabled children's needs.
Independence should be seen less in terms of self-reliance, and more in
terms of 'choosing and controlling what to do, when to do it, and who should do
it.'
(Shropshire Centre for Independent Living )
Disabled children must have the right to personal assistance: 'in order
to achieve the same range of opportunities and activities as a non disabled
person both at home and away from it. This can include day to day activity -
dressing, cooking, reading, driving, bathing your children, and also
spontaneous activity - a business trip, tidying up the garden, joining a
language class or visiting old friends.'
(Shropshire Centre for Independent
Living )
The important point is that the assistance is under the control and direction of the disabled child. This kind of independence brings dignity, and acceptance of being different but equal to non-disabled people. This can only contribute to the development of a positive self-image, and challenges the pre-conception that we are all independent from each other. In reality, we are all inter-independent, a fact which Article 23 needs to recognise.
There needs to be a complete review of the CRC to ensure that States take the responsibility of ensuring, through their legislative process, that disabled children have the right to life, and to live their lives in the community on their own terms, with appropriate physical, intellectual and emotional support. This can only be achieved when disabled children are supported to make their voice heard, in whatever form, both on an individual and on a collective basis, when advocating for their rights.
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Argyle, M (1972) The Psychology of Interpersonal Behaviour. 2nd Edition. Penguin: UK.
Aspis, Simone (1999) 'What they don't tell disabled people with learning difficulties' in: Mairian Corker & Sally French (eds) Disability Discourse. Open University Press: Buckingham, UK. ISBN: 0-335-20222-5 www.openup.co.uk
Aspis, Simone (2000) Disabled Children With Learning Difficulties Fight For Inclusive Education. Changing Perspectives, London.
Bernard (1999) 'Child Sexual Abuse and the Black Disabled Child', Disability And Society, 14 (3).
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Harre, R. (1970) The Principles of Scientific Thinking. University of Chicago Press.
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Independent Panel for Special Educational Advice (IPSEA) www.ipsea.org.uk
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Miller, Judy (1999) All Right at Home? Promoting respect for the human rights of children in family life. Barnardos, Children's Rights Office, The Children's Society, NCH Action for Children, NSPCC, Save the Children: London. Available from: Children's Rights Office, 319 City Rd, London, EC1V 1LJ, UK. e-mail: information@crights.org.uk
Richard Rieser & Micheline Mason (1993) All Together Better. Comic Relief: UK.
Anya Souza (1997) 'Everything you ever wanted to know about Down's syndrome, but never bothered to ask' in: Paul Ramcharan et al. Empowerment in Everyday Life: Learning Disability. Jessica Kingsley: London.
UK 1967 Abortion Act.
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* UN Standard Rules on the Equalization of Opportunities for Persons with Disabilities. (1993)
** Conductive education originated at the Peto Institute in Hungary, where children with cerebral palsy learn to be physically more mobile.
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02/11/2001