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Action Learning : A Case Study on Implementation - Contents : Critical Review of the Literature
Part I
Categories of Literature
Two striking features
characterise the literature as a whole; the paucity of accessible published
literature and the dominant influence of a small elite in terms of authorship.
My own ERIC search revealed less than 25 articles relating to education and
disabled children in developing countries. Peters (1993) found only 8
addressing special education from a cross-cultural perspective. The vast
majority of the literature is produced, validated and influenced by a small
number of western special education professionals, as reflected in Mittler,
Brouillette and Harris (1993) which although intended as a global overview, has
only 3 out of 20 chapters written by authors from developing countries.
I have identified 5 broad categories of literature for the purposes of this review; global overviews, African situation analyses, overviews relating to other developing countries, literature focusing on particular themes or strategies, and finally that which is of interest primarily in its questioning of assumptions. I will begin by placing the literature in its historical context.
The International Year of Disabled Persons (IYDP) in 1981 together with various United Nations initiatives marked the start of a period of consolidation and convergence of thinking in relation to disability (Olusanya 1983), and generated a significant growth in production of literature. More recently, the World Conference on Education for All (Jomtien, Thailand 1990) focused on the rights of all marginalised groups to basic education. Prior to that, UNESCO had been involved in appraising the situation in relation to special education services since the 1960s (UNESCO 1960, 1970, 1974), whilst other literature had primarily focused on the rehabilitation and medical aspects of disability (eg Commonwealth Fdn 1977).
Two key texts have had a major influence on subsequent literature. The World Programme of Action Concerning Disabled Persons (United Nations, 1983) has the following key features; the adoption of the World Health Organisation (WHO) definition of disability, the use of disability statistics ('1 in 10 people are disabled'), and the promotion of a three-pronged global action plan; prevention, rehabilitation and equalisation of opportunities. The WHO Training Disabled People in the Community (Helander, Mendis and Nelson, 1980) launched the concept of Community-based rehabilitation (CBR) which has met with a uniquely high level of unqualified support (O'Toole 1993), and is meant to encompass educational provision for disabled children.
Global overviews presented by Mittler (1980, 1986, 1993a) and Hegarty (1993) have their roots in the above documents, and encapsulate the dominant international special education perspective which permeates the majority literature. This perspective is characterised primarily by the nature of the problem statement and the proposed solutions which follow from this. Firstly, UN statistics are used to demonstrate that there are large numbers of disabled children who lack access to services in developing countries. This is assumed to be a bad thing, further c ompounded by the nature of developing countries which are characterised by sickness, death, disease, poverty and lack of services (Mittler 1993a, Wiesinger 1986, Csapo 1987). The problem is located in both the disabled child and the developing country. Solutions for the child are proposed in terms of prevention and cure, and a series of rehabilitation strategies, including education, which would integrate the child into society. The principles underlying special education are seen to be both simple and universal, and are based on rights (Hegarty p15). Developing countries are recommended to prioritise and develop political will in order to solve their problems. Finally, based on the assumption that both the problems and solutions are clearly defined and universally acknowledged, the key issue is seen to be merely one of implementation.
Jonsson (1993) presents a more in depth analysis by acknowledging the origins, changes and complexity inherent in concepts of special education. He also acknowledges the major role that social and economic issues play in determining policy and practice in developing countries. But although he does examine some key assumptions, the underlying principles and his conclusions are not fundamentally different; he sees the main problem as one of implementation which is dependent on the political will of developing countries.
The majority of the literature focusing on Africa also reflects the dominant perspective discussed above, is descriptive rather than analytical, and focuses on formal provision (Abang 1992, Abilla 1988, Csapo 1986, 1987, Okyere 1994, Possi 1994). Ross (1988) draws together the UNESCO experience in Eastern and Southern Africa in the early 1980s. Although primarily a description of formal provision, brief mention is made of the fact that education of disabled children does happen non-formally in African society, and there is also an interesting account of an alternative community-based programme (Arnold 1988).
Exceptions to this dominant perspective can be found in the early 80s and in more recent literature. Olusanya (1983) presents a discussion rather than a reiteration of the issues raised by the IYDP and the World Programme of Action (UN 1983), and does not assume that the issues are simple, clear or universally relevant. By way of contrast, Mba also writing in 1983, presents an alternative but simplistic view; only the Church has done anything worthwhile for the education of disabled children in Africa, and therefore, the Church not the government should increase it activity.
The most recent UNESCO reports on Africa reflect the developments in concepts and language within Western literature on effective schooling and inclusive education (Ainscow 1991, Visser and Upton 1993). For example, UNESCO (1993) draws on the experience of 9 African countries and advocates unanimous support of 'inclusiveness', and a broadening of the concept of 'special needs' to include other marginalised groups.
Kisanji (1993a) presents a thorough overview of existing service provision in Africa but also highlights issues relating to policy and practice which are often ignored. Firstly cultural belief systems need to be taken into account otherwise programmes are liable to fail or be inappropriate. Secondly, apparent consensus may in fact be Western dominance;
'African countries, despite their stated educational policies, have in the main left special education to 'follow the wind' of their external pioneers.'
Thirdly his analysis of the problems of implementation goes further than the 'political will/priorities' reasons given by Western writers. He highlights areas of weakness including; the conceptualisation of special education as a field for specialists, re liance on external funding, concentration of services in urban areas, irrelevant curricula, 'brain drain' of special education teachers and rivalry between international and national agencies.
The majority of literature focusing on other developing countries is again descriptive and focused on formal provision (Armfield 1992, Carpenter 1987, Chua Tee 1986, Quah 1990, UNESCO 1988, Xu Yun 1992). Some challenges to thinking and alternative perspectives are provided by Mike and Christine Miles (1993 and other writings) on the cross-cultural aspects of learning disability. There are also discussions of the Western influence (Madison et al 1986), acknowledgement of traditional good practice (Matthews et al 1977), and thoughtful discussions on integration and inclusion (Dept of Ed Papua New Guinea 1992, Kohli 1993, Lao M.of Ed. 1994).
Categories of literature according to theme or strategy focus on the following subjects; integration/mainstreaming, teacher training/professional development, alternatives to formal schooling, and categories of child according to impairment or age. I will briefly highlight some of the key characteristics of this literature which will be discussed in more depth in the critique.
Discussions of integration/mainstreaming reflect a wide range of interpretations of the concepts (Abang 1992, Bakare Ayo 1992, Barnartt and Kabzems 1992, Malinga 1991, Mariga and Phachaka 1993). By far the most radical discussions come from the South Africa experience (Kriegler and Farman 1994, Skuy and Partington 1990). There are some pertinent accounts of the justifications for integration, and the problems and successes of implementation (Barker 1994, Fazelbhoy 1989, Save the Children reports from Vietnam 1993b, Laos 1994, Thailand 1993a, Sun 1989, Tuli 1993, Wang and Rule 1992,).
In the literature on categories of children, more challenging contributions are made by the literature on deaf education (Joutselainen 1993) and on learning disabilities or mental handicap (Guma Mongezi 1992, Kriegler 1989, Peters 1993, Miles C and M various publications, Serpell, Mariga and Harvey 1993). Authors focusing on early childhood education draw attention to the importance of alternatives to formal schooling (Brouillette, Thorburn and Yamaguchi 1993, collection in Mitchell and Brown 1991, Phachaka 1990).
A major contribution of literature focusing on professional development, is the move away from a focus on the individual child, towards teacher responsibility for the learning of all children (Ainscow 1993b, Bowman 1986, Brouillette and Brouilette 1993, Cates and Kinnison 1993, Mittler 1986, UNESCO 1985).
The literature on alternatives to formal schooling includes discussions of CBR (Helander et al 1980, 1993, O'Toole 1993, Thorburn and Marfo 1990) and Portage approaches (Brouillette and Brouillette 1992, Mariga 1992), but does not so far have much impact on the mainstream international special education literature. Mike Miles (1985 and subsequently) has argued strongly for the recognition that disabled children are already present in mainstream schools, prior to 'integration' programmes. This phenomenon he terms 'Casual integration'. Kisanji (1981) and Tungaroza (1993) have also done studies on this subject.
Literature which questions assumptions falls into two broad categories; Western-originated discussions on the conceptualisation of special needs and disability (Ainscow 1991, 1993a 1993b, Barton 1993, Booth 1988, Slee 1993a, 1993b, Swain, Finkelstein, French and Oliver 1993), and literature stressing cultural perspectives. Susan Peters' pioneering work Education and Disability in a Cross-Cultural Perspective (1993) challenges the dominant international special education perspective. She highlights the fact that existin g literature is not only very scant, but is based on a range of unchallenged assumptions and ignores cultural bias. Cross-cultural perspectives are also discussed by Brown 1991, Connors and Donnellan 1993, Dalais 1988, Guma Mongezi 1992, Harry and Kalyanpur 1994, Hawkins 1989, Heath and Levin 1991, Kriegler 1989, M Miles 1989, 1991, Miles and Miles 1993, Putnam 1979, Serpell, Mariga and Harvey 1993.
Action Learning : A Case Study on Implementation - Contents : Critical Review of the Literature
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18/03/1998